An Outline of Analytical
Psychology
*By Edward R. Edinger, M.D.
Note: Isabel Briggs Myers created the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®
instrument based on the theories of Carl Gustav Jung. Her goal was to make the
concept of psychological type, as described by Jung, understandable and
assessable to the world. Jung's theories of the human psyche were complex and
his style of writing not always easily discernable. The following article, 15
pages in length, summarizes and describes the basic concepts of C.G. Jung's
theories.
Analytical Psychology
is the school of depth psychology based on the discoveries and concepts of Carl
Gustav Jung. Jung gave the broadest and most comprehensive view of the human
psyche yet available. His writings include a fully-developed theory of the
structure and dynamics of the psyche in both its conscious and unconscious
aspects, a detailed theory of personality types and, most important, a full
description of the universal, primordial images deriving from the deepest layers
of the unconscious psyche. These primordial images are called archetypes of
the collective unconscious. The latter discovery has enabled Jung to
describe striking parallels between the unconscious images produced by
individuals in dream and vision and the universal motifs found in the religions
and mythologies of all ages.
The concept of the collective unconscious
gives analytical psychology an added dimension in comparison with other schools
of psychotherapy. It takes the theory and practice of psychotherapy out of the
exclusive realm of psychopathology and relates it to the whole history of the
evolution of the human psyche in all its cultural manifestations. The practice
of analytical psychology thus becomes not only a therapy for neurosis but also a
technique for psychological development applicable to normal and superior
individuals.
An abstract, theoretical presentation is alien
to Jung who always strove to engage the response of the whole man, not just the
intellect. This presentation should thus be recognized as no more than a
two-dimensional sketch of a three-dimensional reality.
Libido: The
psychic energy that directs and motivates the personality is called libido.
Interest, attention and drive are all expressions of libido. The libido invested
in a given item is indicated by how highly it is valued. Libido can be
transformed or displaced but not destroyed. If the libido attached to one object
disappears, it reappears elsewhere. Libido is the dynamism of the life process
manifested in the psychic sphere.
The theory of libido is closely
connected with the law of opposites. The processes of the psyche depend
on a tension and interplay between opposite poles. If one side of a pair of
opposites becomes excessively predominant in the personality, it is likely to
turn into its contrary. This is called enantiodromia. A one-sided
conscious attitude constellates its opposite in the unconscious. See Jung's
essay "On Psychic Energy"
(1).
Psychological Types:
Analytical psychology distinguishes several psychological types. These
refer to innate differences in temperament which cause individuals to perceive
and react to life in different fashions. There are two attitude types,
the extravert and the introvert.
The extravert is characterized by an
innate tendency for the libido to flow outwards, connecting the individual with
the external world. The extravert naturally and spontaneously gives greatest
interest and value to the object - people, things, external
accomplishments, etc. He or she will be most comfortable and successful when
functioning in the external world and human relationships, and will be restless
and ill at ease when alone without diversion. Having little relation to the
inner world of subjectivity, the extravert will shun it and tend to depreciate
subjective concerns as morbid or selfish.
The introvert is characterized by a
tendency for the libido to flow inwards connecting him or her with the
subjective, inner world of thought, fantasies and feelings. Greatest interest
and value is given to the subject - the inner reactions and images. The
introvert will function most satisfactorily when free from pressure to adapt to
external circumstances. He or she prefers their own company and is reserved or
uncomfortable in large groups.
Both introvert and extravert have the defects
of their strengths and each tends to undervalue the other. To the extravert, the
introvert appears self-centered and withholding of himself. To the introvert,
the extravert appears shallow, opportunistic and hypocritical.
Every individual possesses both tendencies,
but one is usually more developed than the other. As a pair of opposites they
follow the law of opposites. Thus, an excessive, one-sided emphasis on one
attitude is likely to lead to the emergence of its opposite. The opposite,
however, because it is undeveloped and undifferentiated, will appear in a
negative, crude and unadapted form. Thus the extreme extravert will become a
victim of negative inferior introversion in the form of depressions. The extreme
introvert is likely to have episodes of compulsive extraversion which are crude,
ineffectual and unadapted to outer reality.
In addition to attitude types, we also
distinguish four function types. The four basic psychological functions
are thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition.
Thinking is
the rational capacity to structure and synthesize discrete data by means of
conceptual generalizations. Feeling is the function which determines
value. It is the function that values and promotes human relationships.
Sensation is that function which perceives and adapts to external reality
via the senses. Intuition is defined as perception via the unconscious,
that is, the perception of representations or conclusions whose origin is
obscure. These four functions arrange themselves into two pairs of opposites:
thinking - feeling and sensation - intuition.
Although every individual has all four
functions potentially at their disposal, in actuality one function is usually
more fully developed than the others. This is called the superior function.
The one least developed is the one that is most primitive and unconscious - the
inferior function.
Often a second function will have achieved
considerable development which approaches that of the superior function. This is
an auxiliary function. Since any one of the four functions may be
superior, we have the possibility of four function types: the thinking
type, feeling type, sensation type, and intuitive type.
The thinking type is found more often
in men than in women. The thinking type's mental life is concerned largely with
the creation of intellectual formulae and the fitting of all life experience
into these forms. To the degree that the individual is identified with the
thinking function and unconscious of the other functions, the thinking will tend
to be autocratic and limit the full experience of life. Since feeling will be
the inferior function, its values will suffer the most neglect. Human
relationships will be quickly sacrificed if they interfere with the ruling
formula.
The feeling type is found more often in
women than in men. The development and sustenance of personal relationships is
the major aim. A sensitivity to human needs and a willingness to meet them is
its outstanding characteristic. It finds its greatest satisfaction in rapport
with others. In its extreme, this function type can be objectionable in its
excessive emphasis on personal matters. Since thinking is the inferior function,
its capacity for abstract, impersonal judgments will be neglected or denied.
Thinking will be accepted only so long as it plays a subservient role to the
interests of feeling values.
The sensation type is characterized by
the excellent adaptation to simple, matter-of-fact reality. He or she is content
to relate to life on its most elementary terms without subtlety, reflection or
imagination. The sensation type appears stable and earthy but may lack creative
spark. Vision and imagination, which could mitigate this earthbound state, are
products of intuition, which is the inferior function of this type. The
sensation type, in fact, will often depreciate intuitive expressions as
unrealistic fantasies and thus be deprived of badly needed leaven at times of
mental heaviness.
The intuitive type is motivated chiefly
be a steady stream of new visions and possibilities, derived from active
intuition. The new, the strange and the different are a constant lure. He or she
often perceives obscure connections between things which seem separate and
unrelated. The intuitive mind works in quick jumps, which is sometimes difficult
for others to follow. When asked to proceed more slowly, he or she is apt to
become impatient, perhaps considering listeners slow in making connections. This
type's weakness lies in its inferior sensation function. The relationship to
reality may be poor. The hard work required to bring a possibility into
actuality or to make an intuitive flash generally accepted seems too onerous. He
or she may remain misunderstood with insights, which if they are to bear fruit,
must be patiently developed by others.
The function types are seldom as definite as
would appear by these descriptions. Usually the development of an auxiliary
function will soften and modify the sharp characteristics here described. In
addition, we have a further complication. According to the attitude type, each
of the function types may have either an introverted or an extraverted
orientation.
Ideally, all four functions should be
available to the individual in order to have a complete response to life
experience. It is one of the goals of Jungian psychotherapy to bring in to
consciousness and to aid the development of the inferior undeveloped functions
in order to approach psychic wholeness.
Many conflicts in human relationships and
disputes can be understood through the theory of psychological types. For
instance, Jung has explained the difference between the psychological theories
of Freud and Adler on this basis. Freud's theory is concerned chiefly with the
individual's need for and love of the object. Thus it is an extraverted theory.
Adler's theory is based on the individual's need to maintain his own
self-esteem, prestige and power. Adler emphasizes the inner, subjective need;
hence his is an introverted theory.
Differences in type can underlie
difficulties in interpersonal relationships. Marital conflicts are often related
to differences in psychological type. Knowledge of one's own type and of the
fact that other equally valid types exist can often help to relativize one's own
personal reactions and can lead to more conscious and fruitful human
relationships. (2)
Structure of the Psyche:
The psyche can be divided into conscious and unconscious aspects.
The ego is the center of conscious and the starting point for all
empirical psychology. It is the seat of individual identity, and all contents
which are conscious, must be connected with it. The unconscious includes
all psychic elements which are outside conscious awareness and therefore are not
connected with the ego.
Contents of the unconscious are first
encountered as complexes. A complex is an emotionally charged
unconscious psychic entity made up of a number of associated ideas and images
clustered around a central core. On investigation, this core is found to be an
archetypal image (see below). One recognizes that a complex has been
struck by the emergence of an affect which upsets psychic balance and disturbs
the customary function of the ego.
The ego stands between the inner world and the
outer world, and its task is to adapt to both. By its extraverted orientation,
it relates itself to external reality. By introversion, it perceives and adapts
to inner, subjective reality. The requirement for external adaptation leads to
the construction of a psychic structure which mediates between the ego and the
external world of society. This mediating structure is called the persona,
the Latin word for the ancient actor's mask. It is the partially calculated
public face an individual assumes towards others. The persona is composed of
various elements, some based on the individual's personal propensities and
others derived from the society's expectations and the early training of parents
and teachers.
The persona is a mediating compromise between
individuality and the expectations of others. It is the role one plays in
society. It is also a protective covering that shields from public view what is
personal, intimate and vulnerable. The characteristic symbol for the persona is
the clothes we wear. Dreams involving missing or inappropriate clothes refer to
a persona problem. Ideally a persona should be appropriate, well fitting and
flexible. It is especially important that the individual realize that he is not
identical with his persona.
The persona sometimes lends one a
prestige and authority belonging to the collective group which is not properly
used for personal ends. To identify with the persona can cause inflation and
alienation from reality. Other persona disorders include a lack of persona which
leaves the individual sensitive and exposed to every social touch, and a too
rigid, defensive persona which is a barrier to realistic adaptation. For further
discussion of the persona, see
(3).
Just as the persona stands between the ego and
the outer world, so another psychic entity stands between the ego and the inner
world of unconscious. This entity is called the shadow. The shadow is a
composite of personal characteristics and potentialities of which the individual
is unaware. Usually the shadow, as indicated by the word, contains inferior
characteristics and weaknesses which the ego's self-esteem will not permit it to
recognize.
The shadow may be personified in dreams by
such figures as criminals, drunkards and derelicts. Technically it must be of
the same sex as the dreamer. As with all unconscious contents, the shadow is
first experienced in projection. This means that an unconscious quality of one's
own is first recognized and reacted to when it is discovered in an outer object.
So long as the shadow is projected, the individual can hate and condemn freely
the weakness and evil seen in others while maintaining a sense of righteousness.
Discovery of the shadow as a personal content may, if it is sudden, cause
temporary confusion and depression. This will be most likely if the ego's
previous attitude has bee especially inflated.
The shadow is the first layer of the
unconscious to be encountered in psychological analysis. It is not always a
negative content. In many cases unconscious positive potentialities of the
personality reside in the shadow. In such cases we speak of a positive shadow.
Furthermore, the evil and dangerous aspect of the shadow is often due more to
its circumstances than to its essence. Just as animals which have become vicious
by starvation and brutal treatment can be changed into loyal companions by
loving care, so the shadow loses much of its negative aspect when given
conscious acceptance and attention.
The problem of the shadow and its
projection applies to collective psychology as well. The persecution of the Jews
by the Nazis is a terrifying example of the extent to which a collective shadow
projection can go. The same psychological mechanism operates in discrimination
against other minority groups. For more on the shadow, see
(4).
The first layer of the unconscious, the
shadow, is also called by Jung the personal unconscious, as distinguished
from the collective unconscious. The personal unconscious or shadow contains
personal contents belonging to the individual himself which can and properly
should be made conscious and integrated into the conscious personality and ego.
The collective unconscious, on the other hand, is composed of transpersonal,
universal contents which cannot be assimilated by the ego. Between these two
layers of the unconscious, the personal and the collective, is another entity
with, so to speak, one foot on each side. This is the anima in a man and
the animus in a woman.
The anima is an autonomous psychic
content in the male personality which can be described as an inner woman. She is
the psychic representation of the contrasexual elements in man and is depicted
in symbolic imagery by figures of women ranging from harlot and seductress to
divine wisdom and spiritual guide. She is the personification of the feminine
principle in man, the principle of Eros, pertaining to love and
relatedness. The projection of the anima is responsible for the phenomenon of a
man's "falling in love." Too much identification of the ego with the anima
causes the man to outwardly manifest feminine qualities.
Anima moods
or states of anima possession can be recognized by their characteristic
features of resentment and emotional withdrawal. Such a condition renders a man
psychically paralyzed and impotent. It is most likely to occur in relation to a
woman with whom he is emotionally and sexually involved. With full psychological
development, the anima leads the man to the full meaning of human relationship
and provides him an entrance to the deeper layers of the psyche, the collective
unconscious.
The animus is the corresponding
representative of the masculine contrasexual elements in the psychology of
women. It can be expressed in symbolic imagery by a multitude of male figures
from frightening, aggressive men threatening rape to divining bringers of light.
It is the personification of the masculine principle in women, the
principle of Logos, which is the capacity for rationality and
consciousness. A woman's "falling in love" is likewise due to the projection of
the animus. Subjective identification of the ego with the animus causes the
woman to lose contact with her feminine nature and to take on more masculine
qualities.
The animus-possessed woman is
more interested in power than in relatedness. As with the man's anima, the
animus is most often activated in relation to an emotionally significant man,
especially a man with whom she is sexually involved. Indeed, the anima and
animus have a marked affinity for each other. The slightest evidence of one is
likely to evoke the other in the partner. With maturity and maximum development,
the animus can become a valuable psychic entity enabling the woman to function
with objective rationality and, similarly to the anima in a man, opens to her
the collective unconscious. Further discussion of anima and animus is in
(5)
and (6).
The collective unconscious, more
recently termed objective psyche, is the deepest layer of the unconscious
which is ordinarily inaccessible to conscious awareness. Its nature is
universal, suprapersonal and non-individual. Its manifestations are experienced
as something alien to the ego, numinous or divine. The contents of the
collective unconscious are called archetypes and their particular
symbolic manifestations, archetypal images.
The concept of the archetype has a close
relation to the concept of instinct. An instinct is a pattern of behavior
which is inborn and characteristic for a certain species. Instincts are
discovered by observing the behavior patterns of individual organisms. The
instincts are the unknown motivating dynamisms that determine an animal's
behavior on the biological level.
An archetype is to the psyche what an instinct
is to the body. The existence of archetypes is inferred by the same process as
that by which we infer the existence of instincts. Just as instincts common to a
species are postulated by observing the uniformities in biological behavior, so
archetypes are inferred by observing the uniformities in psychic phenomena. Just
as instincts are unknown motivating dynamisms of biological behavior, archetypes
are unknown motivating dynamisms of the psyche. Archetypes are the psychic
instincts of the human species. Although biological instincts and psychic
archetypes have a very close connection, exactly what this connection is we do
not know any more than we understand just how the mind and body are connected.
Archetypes are perceived and experienced
subjectively through certain universal, typical, recurring mythological motifs
and images. These archetypal images, symbolically elaborated in various
ways, are the basic contents of religions, mythologies, legends and fairy tales
of all ages. Such images also emerge from the collective unconscious of
individuals through dreams and visions in cases of deep psychological analysis,
profound subjective experience or major mental disorder. The experience of
encountering an archetypal image has a strong emotional impact which conveys a
sense of divine or suprapersonal power transcending the individual ego. Such an
experience often transforms the individual and radically alters their outlook on
life.
Archetypal images are so various and numerous
that they defy comprehensive listing. For our purposes, we shall describe four
broad categories of archetypal imagery.
I. The Archetype of the Great Mother,
the personification of the feminine principle, represents the fertile womb out
of which all life comes and the darkness of the grave to which it returns. Its
fundamental attributes are the capacity to nourish and to devour. It corresponds
to mother nature in the primordial swamp - life being constantly spawned and
constantly devoured. If the great mother nourishes us, she is good; if she
threatens to devour us, she is bad. In psychological terms, the great mother
corresponds to the unconscious which can nourish and support the ego or can
swallow it up in psychosis or suicide. The positive, creative aspects of the
great mother are represented by breast and womb. The negative, destructive
aspects appear as the devouring mouth or the vagina dentata. In more
abstract symbolism, anything hollow, concave or containing pertains to the great
mother. Thus, bodies of water, the earth itself, caves, dwellings, vessels of
all kinds are feminine. So also is the box, the coffin and the belly of the
monster which swallows up its victims. See Neumann(7).
II. The Archetype of the Spiritual Father.
As the great mother pertains to nature, matter and earth, the great father
archetype pertains to the ream of light and spirit. It is the personification of
the masculine principle of consciousness symbolized by the upper solar region of
heaven. From this region comes the wind, pneuma, nous, ruach,
which has always been the symbol of spirit as opposed to matter. Sun and rain
likewise represent the masculine principle as fertilizing forces which
impregnate the receptive earth. Images of piercing and penetration such as
phallus, knife, spear, arrow and ray all pertain to the spiritual father.
Feathers, birds, airplanes and all that refers to flying or height are part of
this complex of symbols which emphasizes the upper heavenly realms. In addition,
all imagery involving light or illumination pertain to the masculine principle
as opposed to the dark earthiness of the great mother. Illumination of the
countenance, crowns, halos and dazzling brilliance of all kinds are aspects of
masculine solar symbolism.
The image of the wise old man as judge,
priest, doctor or elder is a human personification of this same archetype. The
positive aspect of the spiritual father principle conveys law, order,
discipline, rationality, understanding and inspiration. Its negative aspect is
that it may lead to alienation from concrete reality causing inflation, a state
of spiritual hubris or presumption that generates grandiose thoughts of
transcendence and results in the fate of Icarus or Phaeton.
III. The Archetype of Transformation
pertains to a psychic process of growth, change and transition. It can express
itself in many different images with the same underlying core of meaning.
Perilous journeys to unknown destinations, exploration of dark places,
purposeful descent to the underworld or under the sea or into the belly of a
monster to find a hidden treasure are expressions of this archetype. The theme
of death and rebirth as well as the symbolism of initiation rites in all of
their various forms; the crossing of rivers or waters or chasms and the climbing
of mountains; the theme of redemption, salvation or recovery of what has been
lost or degraded, wherever it appears in mythological or unconscious symbolism -
all of these are expressions of the archetype of transformation.
The theme of the birth of the hero or
wonder-child also belongs to this archetype. This image expresses the emergence
of a new, dynamic content in the personality presaging decisive change and
enlargement of consciousness.
(8)
A rich and complex example of this
archetype is provided by the symbolism of medieval alchemy. In alchemy, the
psychic transformation process was projected into matter. The goal of the
alchemists was to transmute base matter into gold or some other supremely
valuable object. The imagery of alchemy derives from the collective unconscious
and belongs properly to the psychological process of transformation.(9)
IV. The Central Archetype, The Self,
expresses psychic wholeness or totality. The Self is defined by Jung as
both the center and circumference of the psyche. It incorporates within its
paradoxical unity all the opposites embodied in the masculine and feminine
archetypes. Since it is a borderline concept referring to an entity which
transcends and encompasses the individual ego, we can only allude to it and not
encompass it by a definition. As the central archetype is emerging, it often
appears as a process of centering or as a process involving the union of
opposites.
Alchemical symbolism gives us numerous
examples of the central archetype as a union of opposites. For example, the
philosopher's stone, one of the goals of the alchemical process, was depicted as
resulting from the marriage of the red king and the white queen, or from the
union of the sun and moon, or fire and water. The product of such a union is a
paradoxical image often described as hermaphroditic. Other images which are used
to express the union of opposites are the reconciliation of opposing partisan
factions and the reconciliation of good and evil, God and Satan.
The emerging central archetype gives rise to
images of the mandala. The term mandala is used to describe the
representations of the Self, the archetype of totality. The typical mandala in
its simplest form is a quadrated circle combining the elements of a circle with
a center plus a square, a cross or some other expression of fourfoldness.
Mandalas are found everywhere in all
times and places. They seem to represent a basic unifying and integrating
principle which lies at the very root of the psyche. Mandalas can be found in
the cultural products of all races. A fully developed mandala usually emerges in
an individual's dreams only after a long process of psychological development.
It is then experienced as a release from an otherwise irreconcilable conflict
and may convey a numinous awareness of life as something ultimately harmonious
and meaningful in spite of its apparent contradictions.
(10,11)
Psychological Development
is the progressive emergence and differentiation of the ego or consciousness
from the original state of unconsciousness. It is a process which, ideally,
continues throughout the lifetime of the individual. In contradistinction to
physical development, there is no time at which one can say that full psychic
development has been achieved. Although we may distinguish various stages of
development for descriptive purposes, actually one stage merges into another in
a single fluid continuum.
In the early phase, the ego has very little
autonomy. It is largely in a state of identification with the objective psyche
within and the external world without. It lives in the world of archetypes and
makes no clear distinction between inner and outer objects. This primitive state
of ego development is called, after Lévy-Bruhl, participation mystique,
and is shared by both the primitive and the child. It is a state of magical
participation and interpretation between the ego and its surroundings. What is
ego and what is non-ego are not distinguished. Inner world and outer world are
experienced as a single totality. This primitive state of participation mystique
is also evident in the phenomena of mob psychology in which individual
consciousness and responsibility are temporarily eclipsed by identification with
a collective dynamism.
Jung made no
effort to present a systematic theory of psychological development. However,
some of his followers, especially Neumann(12),
have attempted to fill in this gap. Following Neumann, the stages of
psychological development can be described as follows.
The first or original state is called the
uroboric stage, derived from uroborus, the circular image of the
tail-eating serpent. It refers to the original totality and self-containment
which is prior to the birth of consciousness. The ego exists only as a latent
potentiality in a state of primary identity with the Self or objective
psyche. This state is presumed to pertain during the prenatal period and early
infancy.
The transition between this state and the
second stage of development corresponds to the creation of the world for the
individual psyche. Thus world creation myths refer to this first decisive event
in psychic development - the birth of the ego out of the unconscious. The basic
theme of all creation myths is separation. Out of undifferentiated wholeness one
element is discriminated from another. It may be expressed as the creation of
light - the separation of light from darkness, or as the separation of the world
parents - the distinction between masculine and feminine, or the emergence of
order out of chaos. In each case the meaning is the same, namely, the birth of
consciousness, the capacity to discriminate between opposites.
The second stage of psychological development
is called the matriarchal phase. Although beginning consciousness has
appeared, it is as yet only dim and fitful. The nascent ego is still largely
passive and dependent on its uroboric matrix which now takes on the aspect of
the great mother. Masculine and feminine elements are not yet clearly
differentiated so that the great mother will still be undifferentiated as to
sex. To this stage belongs the image of the phallic mother incorporating both
masculine and feminine components. Here, the ruling psychic entity is the great
mother. The predominant concern will be to seek her nourishment and support and
to avoid her destructive, devouring aspect. The father archetype or masculine
principle has not yet emerged into separate existence. Mother is still all. The
ego has achieved only a precarious separation and is still dependent on the
unconscious, which is personified as the great mother.
The matriarchal phase is represented
mythologically by the imagery of the ancient Near Eastern mother religions, for
example, the Cybele-Attis myth. Attis, the son-lover of Cybele, was unfaithful
to her. In a frenzy of regret, reflecting his dependent bondage, he was
castrated and killed. The matriarchal phase corresponds to the Oedipal phase
as described by Freud. However, analytical psychologists interpret incest
symbolically rather than literally as was done by Freud. The matriarchal phase
is the phase of original incest, symbolically speaking, prior to the emergence
of the incest taboo. In the life of the individual, this phase corresponds
roughly with the early years of childhood.
The third stage is called the patriarchal
phase. The transition is characterized by particular themes, images and
actions. In an attempt to break free from the matriarchal phase, the feminine
with all its attributes is rejected and depreciated. The theme of initiation
rituals pertains to this period of transition. The father archetype or masculine
principle emerges in full force and claims the allegiance of the individual.
Tests, challenges, rules and discipline are set up in opposition to the sympathy
and comfortable containment of the great mother. The incest taboo is erected
prohibiting regression to the mother-bound state.
Once the transition to the patriarchal stage
has been accomplished, the archetype of the great father, the masculine spirit
principle, determines the values and goals of life. Consciousness, individual
responsibility, self-discipline and rationality will be the prevailing values.
Everything pertaining to the feminine principle will be repressed, depreciated
or subordinated to masculine ends. In childhood development, the patriarchal
phase will be particularly evident in the years preceding puberty.
The fourth phase is designated the
integrative phase. The preceding patriarchal stage has left the individual
one-sided and incomplete. The feminine principle, woman and therefore the anima
and the unconscious have been repressed and neglected. Another change or
transition is thus needed to redeem these neglected psychic elements.
This transition phase also has its
characteristic imagery. The most typical myth is the hero fighting the dragon.
In this archetypal story, a beautiful maiden is in captivity to a dragon or
monster. The maiden is the anima, the precious but neglected feminine principle
which has been rejected and depreciated in the previous patriarchal phase of
development. The monster represents the residual uroboric state, the great
mother in its destructive, devouring aspect. The anima or feminine value is
still attached to this dangerous element and can be freed only by heroic action.
The hero represents the necessary ego attitude that is willing to relinquish the
safety of the conventional patriarchal standards and expose himself once again
to the unconscious, the dangers of regression and bondage to the woman in order
to redeem a lost but necessary element, the anima. If this is successful, the
anima or feminine principle is raised to its proper value modifying and
completing the previous one-sided patriarchal attitude.
This is a decisive step in psychological
integration that amounts to a reconciliation of opposites; masculine and
feminine, law and love, conscious and unconscious, spirit and nature. In
individual development of the youth, this phase corresponds to the emerging
capacity to relate to girls during puberty which is subsequently followed by
love for a particular woman and eventually marriage.
It should be understood that although these
phases of psychic development have been related to various periods in the
development of the child and young man, their meaning is not confined to these
external events. The end of psychological development is not reached with the
event of marriage. Such external happenings are only the external manifestations
of an archetypal process of development which still awaits its inner
realization. Furthermore, the series of psychological stages here described can
be traversed not once but many times in the course of psychic development. These
stages are, so to speak, successive way stations that we return to again and
again in the course of a spiral journey which takes one over the same course
repeatedly but each time on a different level of conscious awareness.*
*The foregoing account of development
refers particularly to masculine psychology. Although the same stages of
development apply to a woman, they will be experienced in a somewhat different
way. Relevant myths are those of Demeter and Persephone and Amor and Psyche. See
Neumann's excellent commentary on Amor and Psyche.(13)
Jung's major contribution to developmental
psychology is his concept of individuation. The term refers to a developmental
process which begins in the adult individual, usually after the age of
thirty-five, and if successful leads to the discovery of the Self and the
replacing of the ego by it as the personality center.
Individuation is the discovery of and the
extended dialogue with the objective psyche of which the Self is the
comprehensive expression. It begins with one or more decisive experiences
challenging egocentricity and producing an awareness that the ego is subject to
a more comprehensive psychic entity. Although the full fruits of the
individuation process only appear in the second half of life, the evolving
relation between the ego and the objective psyche is a continuous one from birth
to death.
The Process of Psychotherapy:
Psychotherapy is a systematic examination and cultivation of the inner
life. It is applicable not only to neurosis and mental disorders but also to
those with a normal psychology who wish to promote their own psychological
development. A unique and comprehensive technique has been developed. The basic
instrument of this procedure is the personality of the psychotherapist. Major
care and attention is thus given to the selection and training of potential
psychotherapists.
The primary requirement for a psychotherapist
is that he or she has experienced a thorough personal analysis which leads to a
high level of psychological development. It is a basic axiom that a therapist
can lead his patient's psychic development no further than he himself has gone.
Fundamentally, it is the patient's opportunity to have a living relationship and
dialogue with a more developed conscious personality that produces the healing
effect.
After the initial consultation, when the
decision is made to begin work with a particular psychotherapist, the procedure
is started by taking a detailed anamnesis. This is a historical summary
and discussion of all significant life experiences in chronological order which
the patient can recall. Next comes an examination of the current life situation
with particular emphasis on areas that are felt to be problematical. Only when
the past and the present have been explored adequately, so far as they are
available to consciousness, does the therapist turn attention to the
unconscious.
The major approach to the unconscious is
through dream interpretation. A dream is considered to be an
expression of the objective psyche describing in symbolic language the nature of
the current psychic situation. The understanding of dreams thus becomes a
powerful aid in the growth of consciousness.
A dream is a symbol. This term has a
particular connotation in analytical psychology. A symbol is not a sign and does
not stand for a known meaning that could be expressed equally well in another
way. A symbol is an image or form giving the best expression available to a
content whose meaning is still largely unknown. On the basis of this definition
it is clear that a symbol (or dream) cannot be interpreted as though it were a
sign standing for a well-known meaning. It must be approached by the method of
analogy which amplifies the unknown meaning to the point of visibility.
In analytical psychology, the interpretation
of dreams is undertaken by amplification. The method has two aspects,
personal amplification and general amplification.
Personal amplification
is done by asking the patient for associations to each of the specific
items and figures in the dream. Associations are the spontaneous
feelings, thoughts and memories that come to mind concerning the given item in
the dream. The total of the associations to all the elements in the dream
provide the personal context of the dream and often lead to a significant
meaning.
General amplification
is done by the psychotherapist on the basis of personal knowledge. It provides
the collective, archetypal associations to the dream elements. Here is where the
therapist's knowledge of the collective or objective psyche is put to use. When
a dream contains an archetypal image or theme, the therapist demonstrates this
by presenting parallel imagery from mythology, legend and folklore. General
amplification establishes the collective context of the dream enabling it to be
seen as referring not only to a personal psychic problem but also to a general,
collective problem common to all human experience. General amplification
introduces the patient to the collective or objective psyche and at the same
time helps the process of disidentifying the ego from the objective psyche. As
long as the patient experiences his problems and his dreams as referring only to
his personal psychology, his ego remains largely identified with the objective
psyche and he carries a burden of collective guilt and responsibility not
properly personal which can paralyze his capacity to function.
In addition to dreams, imaginative and
expressive activity of all kinds is encouraged. Drawing, painting, sculpture,
story writing, etc., may be suggested as means of expressing emerging
unconscious material. Such creative products are then examined in much the same
way as dreams. Even without analytic interpretation, the effort to give verbal
or visual expression to unconscious images can often be very useful. The
objectification of a psychic image, by painting for instance, can help to
disidentify the ego from the unconscious and may release a sum of psychic
energy.
At a later stage of psychotherapy another
important technique is introduced in suitable cases. This is called active
imagination. This procedure must be learned and requires considerable
experience to use. There must be discrimination in its use since in some cases
there is danger that it might activate unconscious contents that cannot be
controlled. Properly used, however, it is a very valuable technique.
Active imagination is a process of conscious,
deliberate participation in fantasy. It often takes the form of a dialogue
between the ego and a fantasy figure - perhaps the shadow or anima. It can be
extremely helpful in bringing an unconscious content into consciousness
especially when the ego feels it has reached an impasse. To the degree that a
patient can independently use active imagination successfully, there will be
less need for the help of the therapist. Indeed, the development of this
technique often leads to the termination of formal psychotherapy since the
patient then has the capacity to relate to and deal with the unconscious.
A very common and important phenomenon
in psychotherapy is the transference. This refers to the emotional
involvement, either positive or negative, based on unconscious factors which the
patient feels for the psychotherapist. The transference is due to the projection
of unconscious contents onto the therapist. Such projection may have varying
kinds of content and intensity. Commonly, an early form of the projection is an
expectation of being treated in the same way as the patient had been treated by
the parent of the same sex as the analyst. However, in a deep transference after
the analysis of these superficial aspects, it is generally found that the
transference is based on the projection of the Self onto the analyst. The
analyst then becomes endowed with all the awesome power and authority of the
deity. So long as this projection prevails, the relationship to the therapist
will be the container for the highest life value. This is because the Self is
the center and source of psychic life, and contact with it must be preserved at
all cost. As long as the therapist is carrying the projection of the Self, the
relationship between the therapist and patient will be equivalent to connection
with the Self, which is vital to the patient's psyche. To the degree that this
projection can be consciously recognized, dependence on the therapist will be
replaced progressively by an inner relatedness to the Self. Through the
intermediary step of experiencing and living through the transference, the
patient will gradually reach awareness of the inner power and authority of the
objective psyche as it is manifested internally.(14)
Synchronicity
is the term Jung coined for a postulated a-causal connecting principle to
explain the occurrence of meaningful coincidences. The phenomenon of
synchronicity stands on the borderline of human knowledge and what is said about
it must remain tentative. Nevertheless, there is a growing body of evidence
indicating that under certain circumstances events in the outer world coincided
meaningfully with inner psychic states. Evidence of extrasensory perception and
Para-psychological experiments indicate this.
Synchronistic events are often encountered
during an analysis of the unconscious, particularly when the objective psyche
has been activated. Sometimes, for instance, the pertinent associations to a
dream refer to life experiences that occur after the dream rather than
before it. Evidence is accumulating that the objective psyche functions beyond
the categories of time and space. Dreams thus can allude to future events as
well as to past events.
Whether or not an event can be considered an
example of synchronicity depends on the individual's subjective response -
whether he feels it to be a meaningful coincidence. Obviously such subjective
judgments cannot be verified by objective statistical methods. Such subjective
experiences are the empirical data of psychology. On this subjective basis it is
known that synchronistic events do occur, sometimes with a numinous impact on
the individual.
The full significance of synchronicity
is still to be discovered. We already have hints from what is so far known that
at some point the objective psyche may emerge with outer physical reality to
form a unitary reality transcending the antithesis of subject and object.(15)
Bibliography
1. Jung, C.G. The Structure and Dynamics of
the Psyche. Collected Works, Vol. 8, Bollingen Series XX. Pantheon, New
York, 1960. pp. 3-66.
2. Jung, C.G. Psychological Types.
Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1923.
3. Jung, C.G. Two Essays on Analytical
Psychology. Collected Works, Vol. 7, Bollingen Series XX. Pantheon, New
York, 1953, pp. 190-193.
4. von Franz, Marie-Louise. "The Process of
Individuation," in Man and His Symbols, edited by C.G. Jung, Doubleday,
Garden City, New York, 1964, pp. 168-172.
5. Jung, C.G. Two Essays, pp. 186-209.
6. von Franz, Marie-Louise,
pp. 177-195.
7. Neumann, Erich. The Great Mother.
Bollingen Series XLVII. Pantheon, New York, 1955.
8. Jung, C.G. Symbols of Transformation,
Collected Works, Vol. 5, Bollingen Series XX. Pantheon, New York, 1956.
9. Jung, C.G. Psychology and Alchemy,
Collected Works, Vol. 12, Bollingen Series XX. Pantheon, New York, 1953.
10. Jung, C.G. "Concerning Mandala Symbolism,"
in The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, Collected Works, Vol. 9
(1), Bollingen Series XX. Pantheon, New York, 1959, pp. 355-384.
11. von Franz, Marie-Louise, pp. 196-211.
12. Neumann, Erich. The Origins and History
of Consciousness, Bollingen Series XLII. Pantheon, New York, 1954.
13. Neumann, Erich. Amor and Psyche,
Bollingen Series LIV. Pantheon, New York, 1956.14.
14. Jung, C.G. The Practice of
Psychotherapy, Collected Works, Vol. 16, Bollingen Series XX. Pantheon, New
York, 1958.
15. Jung, C.G. "Synchronicity: An Acausal
Connecting Principle," in Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, pp.
417-419.
* AN OUTLINE OF ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY, by
Edward F. Edinger, M.D., was first published in Quadrant, a publication of the
Jung Foundation for Analytical Psychology, Inc., New York, N.Y. in 1968.
Using Type - C. J. Jung
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